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Thomas Kuhn opened a Pandora's box of controversy with his 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. By describing how "normal" science works and how normal science gets upended during scientific revolutions, what Kuhn calls "paradigm shifts," he helped topple science from its lofty heights of rational certainty, placing it instead in the world of the probable and the contingent - in other words, into the realm of rhetoric.

Starting with "normal" science...

Kuhn makes a distinction between "normal" science - the everyday work that most scientists do based on an established scientific foundation - and "revolutionary" science, the type that questions the very foundations on which "normal" science is built. Normal science, he says, consists mainly of extending knowledge about the facts revealed by the established paradigm, increasing the extent of the match between those facts and the predictions the paradigm enables scientists to make, and by further clarification of the paradigm itself (Kuhn 24).

Normal science can only function within an established paradigm, which determines both the problems that can be addressed and the "acceptable" solutions to those problems. Asking questions or coming up with solutions to those questions in a way that violates the boundaries of the paradigm is frequently dismissed, ignored, attacked, or ridiculed, responses which are rhetorical in themselves.

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